I BACKGROUND

This Conference has two different, but clearly related, origins. One lies in a series of studies and conferences supported by the United Nations fund for Population Activities on the combined problems of urbanization, population dynamics and development. There have been scores of small regional conferences on local topics, two major international conferences on the full range of population problems, and a series of more recent regional and world wide conferences on population and urbanization. In 1980 at Rome, the International Conference on Population and the Urban Future considered the broad problem of the future of population growth and spatial distribution. The Mexico City Conference on Population and Small and Medium-sized Cities in Latin American and the Caribbean, February 1986, focused on a specific set of regional and city-sized problems. The Barcelona Conference on Population and the Urban Future later that same year turned once again to the general problem for all cities. An issue that arose over and over again concerned the specific role of mid-sized or intermediate cities. This was given direct attention by a UNCHS Habitat Study of the Role of Small and Intermediate Settlements in National Development, held in Nairobi in 1985.

All of these Conferences and studies have one major underlying rationale. They aim to raise awareness of population problems, and to help define appropriate actions to be taken toward the solution of those problems. In more technical language they are designed to turn population conditions from exogenous variables into programmable variables. This is all in keeping with one of the UNFPA's major aims.

The second origin of this Conference lies in a decade of close co-operation between Japanese institutions, especially Nihon University's Population Research Institute, and the UNFPA. This has been reflected in three cumulative activities. After some planning, a conference was held in Hokkaido in 1980 to consider the role of migration and land settlement in development. This drew on the co-operation of Hokkaido prefecture, Sapporo City, and Hokkaido University to consider parallel problems of migration and land settlement in frontier areas in the past and in the present. It linked Hokkaido's century old frontier development problems with those of Indonesia's Transmigration and Malay's Federal Land Development Authority programmes. Since the development of Hokkaido's port city of Tomakomai was an integral element of the overall development planning for the northern island, the question of the role of such mid-sized port cities in development was raised. This led to a comparative study of Kobe and Singapore, port cities in the more and less developed countries, which had achieved great success in relieving urban congestion through development and housing programmes. The study was followed by a regional conference to identify the different policy paths of these two successes, from which different models could be developed for other countries in East and Southeast Asia. That conference in turn led to a proposal to consider the role of mid-sized cities in the development of all Asian states, which is the subject of this Conference.

Three planning meetings were held for the current Kobe Conference. In January, February, and June, members of Kobe City government and Nihon University Population Research Institute met together with UNFPA personnel to plan the details of the meeting. The results of these meetings have brought together representatives of 11 Asian countries, as well as representatives of international governmental and non-governmental organizations, to discuss the problems and potentials of medium-sized cities in national development and population planning. A distinctive character of this Conference was the inclusion of administrative and political leaders from the medium-sized cities themselves. The representatives include elected mayors and appointed officials from regional levels and from many medium-sized cities in Asia. This provided the Conference with the direct experience of people who live and work in, and are responsible for the management of, medium-sized cities. The rich experience of these local officials added a high degree of practical realism to the discussions.

Following the plenary session, the participants were divided into two committees to provide the opportunity for more detailed discussion of specific problems. The committees were roughly divided by size of country and number of medium-sized cities. Although there was considerable mixing by size, Committee I included representative from the larger countries, which tend to have a number of medium-sized cities. Committee II tended to represent the smaller countries, which often showed high levels of primacy and few substantial medium-sized cities. Reports of the discussions in these two committees follow the report of the presentations and discussion in the plenary session.

II PLENARY SESSION: SUBSTANTIVE ISSUES

Professor Toru Yano of Kyoto University presented the opening address, focusing on the long term historical analysis of Asia urbanization. He distinguished two patterns of urbanization: self generated urban growth, and urban imposition from the outside. Asia has a tradition of ancient cities, but especially in Southeast Asia these often had something of the character of a state in itself, with their power and influence diminishing with distance from the city. Colonialism brought the introduction of new cities, imposed from the outside, and facing outward through trade to the rest of the world. In some cases, the colonial imposition only strengthened the traditional separateness of the city from the rest of the country.

In East and South Asia, however, there was a much longer tradition of cities as administrative centers tying large tracts of land and population together in old imperial systems. Here, too colonialism imposed new outward looking urban conditions, but the traditions of indigenous urban living have remained important, and give Asian urbanization a distinctive character.

Asia's greater population density has also meant that its current urban experience will be quite different from that in Latin America and Africa, where the externally imposed city has a far greater dominance. Asian higher density also has implications noted by some of the conference participants. For example, India and China have massive urban populations, nearing 300 million people, but they are both currently only about one- fifth to one-quarter urbanized. By the year 2000, their urban populations may reach over 400 million, but the countries will still only be 27 to 33 per cent urban. Thus in Asia we can expect continued city-ward migration from a massive rural population base.

But we can also expect that the densely packed and richly productive agricultural hinterland will continue to provide a strong demand for urban products and services. This will be especially important for the smaller and medium-sized cities, which will continue to have densely settled hinterlands that must be linked to larger national and international communities. The role for medium-sized cities in Asia is and will remain. an important one.

Professor Toshio Kuroda of Nihon University drew the urban picture squarely into the current scene by noting that the UN Surveys indicate that most Third World governments are dissatisfied with the spatial distribution of their populations, and also with the rate and structure of urbanization. There is little theory to help us understand processes of urbanization and the place of a variety of city size in the overall structure. There is also much disagreement on whether this urbanization is a good or bad thing.

Here, the Conference was informed, through a recent UNCHS Habitat review from Nairobi (1985), on the Role of Small and Intermediate Settlements in National Development. One outcome of this review was to identify and critically evaluate current myths about the urban condition. One myth is that there is some optimal size of urban places and optimum level of urbanization for a country. A second is that urbanization is bad, and a third is that the great mega-cities that have recently emerged with world urbanization are also bad. Countering these myths, the study argued that world urbanization will inevitably continue and that there will be more mega-cities around the world. The study proposed that urbanization is not bad in itself, that it can be beneficial, and that urban planning, especially for medium-sized cities, can promote development and human welfare. For this four important guidelines are proposed. The first is that attention to medium-sized or mega-cities can be useful if that attention is part of an overall urbanization and development plan. The second is that the plan must be based on an accurate knowledge of investment possibilities, processes and outcomes. Third, the plan must be based on a sound knowledge of the region and the specific urban history of the country. Finally, urban and development stimulation must be accompanied by the development of administrative capacities.

Professor Kuroda also reviewed the distinctive patterns of Japanese urban migration. City ward migration patterns have resembled those of other industrialized countries until quite recently. Then came a reverse flow to smaller towns and the countryside, reducing the population of some major cities. Finally, Japan is experiencing another reverse, as some parts of the population once again turn cityward in their migration streams. Japanese investment and location policies have had a marked impact on spatial distribution, which might provide lessons for the developing countries of Asia.

Dr. Lin Lean Lim of the University of Malaya emphasized the relative nature of the concept of a medium-sized city. It is most meaningful when related to a specific country's total population and overall urban structure, and to the variety of functions performed by its cities. Urban structure and change are important for social and economic development because they are related to resource exploitation, the production of goods and services and a government's capacity to provide public facilities. National policies should aim for an appropriate urban hierarchy to provide the necessary linkages for an integrated national community.

Dr. Prem P. Talwar of India's National Institute of Health and Family Welfare noted a number of beneficial roles played by medium-sized cities. They link rural and urban areas, permit efficient use of resources for development, provide for a more equitable distribution of facilities and services, and reduce problems of the mega-cities. He also reviewed some of the specific characteristics of the medium-sized cities in India.

Professor Xie Wenhui of Qinghua University in Beijing reviewed the definitions of urban places in China and showed how efficiencies of scale continue to produce advantages for the mega-cities. Her data also show, however, important advantages of medium-sized cities over the smaller cities. This has led the Chinese Government to develop plans for the further development of medium-sized cities.

Dr. Won Bae Kim of the East-West Population Institute reviewed overall Asian urban growth processes and proposed a new method for classifying urban functions and roles by their industrial and occupational structures. This can provide a useful approach to the examination of migration flows, as well as to overall planning for a country's urban structure.

These observations were reinforced by both the expert papers and the presentations of country conditions by the individual representatives. It was noted, for example, that economic planning always takes precedent over spatial planning, and that it unfortunately often neglects the spatial aspects of development planning. A number of participants from medium-sized cities spoke of the consequent dilemmas of industrial investment. This was often effective in providing jobs, but the jobs attracted large populations, demanding extensive urban services, for which industrial investment programmes often make no provision. Development planning must also take account of the different roles to be played by cities of different sizes, and an effective overall plan must consider not only the scale, rate and level of urbanization, but the overall structure of a country's urban places. Focusing more on the structure will make it possible to plan more effectively for medium-sized cities to link various parts of a country together into a more integrated national community. Overall national development and spatial plans such as this have been pioneered in Japan, the Republic of Korea and China.

Participants also noted the limitations of planning and the frequent unforeseen effects of any plan, In some cases development planning has been quite successful, but it has not been able to slow urban growth, which is often one of the aims of planning. A frequently used method is to decentralize industrial and urban growth to reduce pressures on the great mega-cities. Too often, however, the economies of scale continue to sustain the advantage of the mega-cities, thwarting efforts at decentralization. Further, even in medium-sized cities, attempts to solve immediate problems of squatters, and the poverty of recent in-migrants only increase the attraction of the city for other migrants. Sri Lanka is one of the few countries that has been able to stem urban growth by stimulating the development of rural areas and providing extensive welfare benefits throughout the country.

Finally, the presentation of individual participants highlighted the great diversity of the Asian region. India and China, with massive populations and relatively low urbanization, share the region with Singapore and the Territory of Hong Kong, rich and densely settled city states. Further, different political conditions imply great differences in the capacities to plan for urban development, or to manage medium-sized cities. In some cases it is possible to construct closed-city policies and to make them at least partly effective. In other cases the control of any form of migration is virtual impossible. In some cases high primacy rates provide difficult problems, in other cases primacy is no problem at all. There is, however, agreement that both development and urban planning have tended to neglect the medium-sized cities. Drawing attention to these cities, to the important roles they can and do play in national development, and identifying specific suggestions to promote more effective planning for this type of city thus remains an important aim. It is this aim that motivates this Conference.

III REPORT OF COMMITTEE I

Committee I was chaired by Mr. Lai Zhuyan (China) with Mr. D.P. Wijegoonasekera (Sri Lanka) and Mr. Syed All Shah (Pakistan) as Vice- Chairmen. Professor Won Bae Kim of the East-West Center and Professor Xie Wenhui of the University of Qinghua were the Resource Persons for the Committee, assisted by Professors Toshio Kuroda, Gayl D. Ness, Kiyohide Seki, Shouzo Takayose and Choe Sang Chuel. The Secretary for the Committee was Hirofumi Ando.

Committee I was comprised of representatives of the national governments of the following countries which in general have more than two medium-sized cities: China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. It was also composed of representatives of cities in these countries. Most of these cities are relatively larger than those in Southeast Asian countries.

Definitions

The Committee reviewed definitions of medium-sized cities. There was some difference of opinions on the need for firm as opposed to flexible criteria. The discussion did however, generate four important areas of consensus.

(a) Country specificity: no single definition will be adequate, since country conditions are quite different. For larger countries a range between 1 and 4 million can provide a useful point of departure. It may also be important, however, to focus attention on some intermediate range cities in a sub-region of a country, which will again change the specific definition.

(b) Size alone is an insufficient criterion to use for the definition, but size does have important implications. The focus is generally on places intermediate between the great mega-cities and small provincial towns.

(c) Role is also an important consideration. Generally the focus is on the linking function between rural areas or smaller towns and the great mega-cities. Like size, the role concept leads to an identification of the intermediate qualities of medium-sized cities.

(d) The classification cannot be static. Both classification criteria and the classification of any city can and will change as urbanization and development take place. However, the Committee identified four main problems or characteristics:

Characteristic Problems

(1) Problems without resources. Medium cities share most of the problems of mega-cities, but they usually lack the resources, or the taxing powers of their bigger brothers. They also tend to lack the more well developed administrative capacities of the larger cities, which can attract official personnel from all over the country. This often leads to their neglect as the dominant mega-cities have higher priority in the claim on national resources. This, in turn, leads to the necessity of focusing greater planning attention on the medium-size cities.

(2) Local migrant source. Mega-cities tend to draw on the entire nation for their migrants, but medium-sized cities tend to draw more on their own local regions or hinterlands.

(3) Age and sex composition. Like mega-cities, medium-sized cities tend to have higher concentrations of populations in the working ages, and higher sex ratios than the rural areas. In some cases they have more distinctive compositions, which have important implications for sectoral services such as health and family' planning.

(4) Lack of data. In many cases it is not well known how distinctive medium-sized cities are in population composition, because there is little reliable data on them. The Committee suggested more developed data collection capacities for the medium-sized cities.

Optima and Maxima

Planners typically search for optimal definitions of city size, usually with reference to the resource base. In some cases as well, planners have set targets for the maximum size of particular cities or classes of cities. The Committee recognized that while this sometimes leads to useful attempts to identify population-resource dynamics, maxima or optima targets can only refer to the short term. Changes in resource bases and technology can alter the definition of the optimum or maximum size for a city or a class of cities. The City of Kobe provides a good example of land shortage setting maximum levels at one time, which then changed as both administrative and technical capacities for increasing the available land changed.

The impact of time

Although the condition is not unique to medium-sized cities, it should be noted that time has an important impact on both the conditions of, and the planning for, urban development. This can be seen at three different levels. First, with respect to the less controllable international environment of economic cycles, some periods are more conducive to planning than others. Second, most planning exercises have substantial gestation periods, requiring time to produce positive effects. Third, at the more micro level, individual and group aspirations often change with time and urban development. As urban services increase, there is often an increase of aspirations for more and better services. Time also changes the driving forces of urban growth. In the early stages of development, migration is often a major force, and it in turn is usually driven by greater demand for jobs. With later stages of development, migration may be driven by greater demand for better urban services.

Time also changes the mix of migration and natural increase as the sources of urban growth. Many mega-cities today show slower natural increase and sometimes also slower population growth. Medium-sized cities often continue to grow rapidly especially through migration. In either case, effective planning for medium-sized cities requires more and better data on migration as well as vital rates to determine the sources of growth.

The group observed what are often considered the intractable problems of the great mega-cities which may lead to important recommendations for paying attention to medium-sized cities. Some medium-sized cities will become mega-cities. Attention to these cities and planning for their futures now may help to avert some of the more serious conditions currently found in the mega-cities.

Policies

Although it is not a central issue for this Conference, it should be noted that many policies and programmes for medium-sized cities are now being undertaken. It is often difficult to determine what impact such policies are having. It is similarly difficult to determine which policies have been responsible for whatever conditions we now observe. Policy evaluation is very difficult and planners can usually not be certain of the outcome of specific policies. This only leads to the recommendation for continuous and flexible planning and constant efforts to identify the impact of specific policies.

The delegates noted that there are a number of demographic data sources to monitor the population dynamics within a medium-sized city. Most commonly used data include vital registration statistics, censuses and various types of surveys, as well as ration cards where food supply is provided by the government. They also observed, however, that these data did not necessarily provide valid demographic estimates for medium-sized cities partly because city boundaries often do not coincide with other activity boundaries. In general, city wide demographic data especially with regards to migration are not readily available.

The Committee recognized the efforts at data collection at different levels within governmental structures and emphasized the need for much greater co-ordination in order to inform policy makers and planners. The Committee also pointed out that even if a monitoring system was established, it did not always function because of lack of enforcement. Some examples of concrete measures to remedy this implementation problem included the imposition of fines as well as the provision of social benefits such as voting rights, educational opportunities, pensions, and medical care.

The Committee identified other data sources which could be used for demographic monitoring. These include labour force and housing surveys and national identity card systems as well as a residence registration system. However, since they are conducted for purposes other than monitoring population growth and distribution, they do not always provide adequate and accurate information required for the management of medium-sized cities. The delegates recognized the need to develop a modest but practical and timely data collection and analysis system specifically designed for medium-sized cities.

The Committee noted that city size is not the sole determinant of efficiency in providing essential services. Efficiency is closely related to planning, particularly with regard to public investment. It was agreed that if growth far exceeds plans, the process of urban deterioration sets in. It was pointed out that planners traditionally consider costs of services but often ignore the benefits and the quality of the output or the costs. All agreed that benefits need to be calculated but it is difficult to do so. This is an area where further research is required. Several delegates noted the special problems of ancient cities in planning for and providing modern services such as transportation. Therefore, the age of the city is an important factor in determining its efficiency. There was a consensus on the need for planners to anticipate population growth, in order to provide the services and infrastructure for medium-sized cites in advance of growth.

To better qualify the question regarding the role to be played by medium-sized cities, the Committee discussed the definition of development in terms of economic growth versus the improvement of living conditions for all. In the latter sense medium-sized cities have a role to play because they can offer better opportunities to plan, manage and innovate the urban development process in the interest of the community and its needs. In the "traditional" sense, that is, growth of output, medium-sized cities can play an important role. Investment policies in medium-sized cities can have beneficial effects for the region, for example, by providing centres for research and development for agricultural innovations and technological change appropriate to that region. In countries where a policy of decentralization is promoted, medium-sized cities have an important role to play if they are strongly supported in the allocation of resources for their development by the national government.

The Committee noted that in order to achieve the effective development of medium-sized cities, especially with limited resources, a process of selectivity in resource allocation may be essential. Cities may be selected which have the best potential and are better equipped to invest and manage additional resources. The Committee discussed the inevitable disparities and imbalances in development that selectivity may generate, but agreed that this is an inevitable element in any planning process.

The Committee recognized that, since medium-sized cities are a sub-system within the larger system of the national government, inter-linkages between these two entities should be established and strengthened. This is required to avoid isolation and to promote the development of effective linkages. There are many sets of linkages - social, economic, political and demographic - but the linkage between socio-economic and demographic factors was found to be especially important for medium-sized cities. Development of an efficient transportation and communication system, for example, serves as an important development and migration linkage between medium-sized cities and other areas within the urban hierarchy.

The Committee recognized that national and municipal authorities are often at odds particularly with regard to taxation policies and the sharing of revenues. All agreed on the need to develop strategies to devolve authority to local bodies so that cities might enjoy a greater degree of local autonomy. Theories and experiences with several approaches for developing medium-sized cities were described. One is a "top down" approach exemplified by Japan's new industrial city promotion programme and the Republic of Korea's growth-pole city development programme. Another approach is a "bottom-up" method where the responsibility for developing the medium-sized city rests with the local authorities. A third approach involves the creation of an intermediate authority responsible for regional development. Each approach can show both some successes and a number of drawbacks, even failures. The Committee decided that no one model worked for all countries or regions and that conflicts between authorities are inevitable. They should, however, be informed conflicts, based on as much sound data on medium-sized cities as can be made available to local and national authorities.

After reviewing examples of policies and measures to stimulate the development of medium-sized cities, the delegates realized the need to assess the relative effectiveness of these policies. Such assessment may contribute to more appropriate medium-sized city development strategies.

The members agreed that a major constraint on the development and effective management of medium-sized cities is often the absence of adequate administrative capacities. This includes the shortage of qualified personnel resources, which is in part due to the absorption of trained human resources by the mega-cities. In view of this the group recommended that increased attention be paid to developing appropriate training programmes in urban administration, based on the expertise and experience available within the region. The group further recommended the formation of networks among Asian countries to facilitate the exchange of information and experience on a continuous basis for the management of medium-sized cities.

In addition to structural variables, the Committee recognized the importance of psycho-social factors in the development of medium-sized cities. The willingness of the local population to be involved and to contribute appears to be a critical factor. This in turn usually depends on the quality and character of political and administrative leadership.

The deliberations concluded with a discussion of the possibilities of limiting the growth of medium-sized cities. There was a recognition of the fact that there is no possible agreement on whether growth can or even should be limited. What was agreed upon is the necessity of including population factors in development planning for medium-sized cities. Too often economic planning, particularly industrial planning, dominates over both population and spatial planning. This imbalance can generate serious negative consequences for the development and management of medium-sized cities.

IV REPORT OF COMMITTEE II

Committee II was chaired by Mr. Amnard Poltecha (Thailand) with Mr. Ahmad Faud Hashim (Malaysia) and Ms. Nguyen Thi Hoi (Vietnam) as Vice-chairpersons. Dr. Lin Lean Lim and Dr. P.P. Talwar were the resource persons for the Committee, assisted by Dr. Kiyohide Seki. The secretary for the Committee was Mr. Jerrold W. Huguet (ESCAP).

Committee II comprised representatives of the national governments of Bangladesh, Malaysia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam, as well as representatives of cities in those countries. Three of these countries Bangladesh, the Philippines, and Thailand, show high primacy rates, with the urban hierarchy dominated by one great city. Vietnam has two major cities, and Malaysia and Sri Lanka show a more balanced national spatial economy. For all, however, the intermediate cities that stand between the capital and the towns and rural areas are relatively small, especially compared with the large number of 1-2 million population cities found in India, China, or Japan.

Definitions

The Committee decided, therefore, that for purposes of its discussion it would not adopt absolute size as a criterion for defining medium-sized cities. Instead, it conceived of a hierarchy of places in the national space economy of a country ranging from rural areas to towns, small cities, medium-sized cities and large cities. It focused its attention on the second tier of cities intermediate between the large cities and the small towns and rural hinterlands. The Committee also recognized the importance of linking the definition to the actual or potential role of medium-sized cities. While no specific functional definition was adopted, it was understood that the medium-sized cities are centres large enough to influence population and socio-economic and administrative development processes in their respective regions and rural hinterlands.

Dynamics, Data, and Policy

The Committee agreed that medium-sized cities have population dynamics different from both rural areas and the larger cities. Unfortunately monitoring population trends and incorporating them into urban planning is often extremely difficult because statistics collected and tabulated at the national level generally do not provide disaggregations of profiles for medium-sized cities. The data problem is especially serious when city boundaries do not coincide with other administrative (district or sub-district) boundaries. It was also noted that vital registration data are often more comprehensive and up-to-date than are migration data, which might only be available from the census. Recognizing the significance of migration patterns for the growth and changing character of medium-sized cities, the Committee recommended that efforts should be made to collect migration statistics either through supplemental questions on other annual national surveys such as labour force surveys, or through encouraging local city authorities, such as the housing board, to include some migration questions in their institutional data collection exercises. The Committee also pointed out that birth registration data should make a clear distinction between the place of occurrence of the birth and the normal place of residence of the mother.

The Committee also agreed that the population dynamics of medium-sized cities require special attention and policy measures. Since their populations tend to be young, because of previous high fertility and the youth of the in-migrants, birth rates are potentially high and maternal and child health (MCH) and family planning programmes assume great significance. While mortality rates tend to be lower than in rural areas, medium- sized cities can, especially if they are not receiving adequate resources, face serious health problems because of over-crowding and poor sanitation in slum and squatter areas. The implications of migration patterns are also important. Medium-sized cities receive migrants from the countryside or small cities, but they also lose migrants to the larger cities. Characteristics of migrants in these two streams may be quite different. In-migrants from rural areas often lack the training and experience needed for urban living or industrial employment while many of the medium-sized city's best trained people often migrate out to the capital city.

The Committee also pointed out that the population dynamics of medium-sized cities can be greatly affected by the economic, demographic and cultural conditions in the surrounding rural areas. Rural poverty and landlessness stimulate migration of many persons in search of jobs to the cities. On the other hand, during the peak agricultural season, many city residents may go back to the rural areas.

In considering the efficiency of public programmes in relation to city size, the Committee clearly recognized the dilemma faced by national governments in confronting both equity and efficiency considerations. While national governments are concerned with balanced growth of different regions of a country and city governments call for equitable distribution of resources, certain projects may not be efficient in relation to the geographical area and population served.

Importance of Medium-Sized Cities

In this context, the importance of medium-sized cities can be justified. They are ideally suited to provide economic opportunities and social services to their populations because they offer the economies of scale lacking in rural areas and yet avoid the diseconomies associated with over-concentration in the primate city. However, medium-sized cities face a dilemma similar to that of large cities in that the provision of amenities such as low-cost housing, transportation and social services may indirectly stimulate greater in- migration, with the result that people in the city remain inadequately served by available infrastructure. Comprehensive economic, social and demographic planning is required in medium-sized cities so that city development does not itself become unbalanced.

A greater recognition by the national government of the potential of medium-sized cities in national socio-economic development is needed. National efforts to promote medium-sized cities should not be confined to the stimulation of economic activities or investment decisions, but should also ensure adequate resources and administrative and legal support structures to enable these cities to cope with the demands of economic expansion and population growth.

The Committee stressed the important role of medium-sized cities in the spatial distribution of a country's population and in promoting balanced regional growth. To fulfil such roles, cities should focus on the particular functions they can perform in the national space economy by exploiting their natural advantage relative to other areas. Depending upon its location, natural resources, and the economic activity of its hinterland, a city could emphasize industrial development, port functions, export processing, natural resource exploitation, tourism, etc. Some cities could also function as satellites of the capital or as administrative or educational centres.

The development of these functions in medium-sized cities needs to be planned carefully so that the city has the ability to absorb the population and related functions associated with the national development strategy. In order for medium-sized cities to perform their role in the national economy, their functions should be planned to operate synergistically. A city functioning primarily as an agro-processing centre, for example, may need to rely on other cities to provide financial and administrative services, port or marketing facilities.

Recognizing the importance of a well-articulated hierarchy with different sized urban and rural areas playing a range of supportive roles in the national space economy of a country, the Committee called for the development of appropriate linkages through transportation and communication networks, economic interactions (production, market and technology) and administrative decentralization.

The Committee also emphasized the role of medium-sized cities in a dynamic context- that the functions and character of medium-sized cities would alter, depending on a country's stage of industrialization, choice of development priorities and emerging natural advantages of a particular city vis-a-vis other large or small cities and rural areas.

The Committee considered at length the inherent tensions between national, regional and local (city or administrative unit) level policies. The Committee wishes to strongly recommend greater co-ordination both within and between these various levels of government. It is necessary to recognize that cities are affected by national or regional policies concerning housing, industrial development, transportation, land development programmes, etc. that originate in separate ministries and agencies, which themselves may not be effectively co-ordinated coherently with respect to the spatial, developmental and administrative implications of their activities.

In the interest of an equitable allocation of resources among regions or provinces, efficiency is frequently sacrificed. Many medium-sized cities act as development centres for their region. They attract sizeable numbers of in-migrants, but they do not receive national financial allocations commensurate with their role. Several representatives of medium-sized cities indicated that while national planners wished their cities to expand rapidly enough to reverse population growth rates of the largest cities, adequate resources for such expansion were often not provided.

The Committee called for greater autonomy for medium-sized cities in planning their development and in deciding upon the actual use among projects for which resources are allocated to them. It urged greater decentralization of administrative and implementation capacities, but recognized that national authorities should ensure adequate monitoring and co-ordination.

The Committee discussed ways, in which medium-sized cities could solve some of their problems within the constraints imposed by the structures and procedures of the national government and the broader goals and strategies of national development. Several of the cities represented in the Committee indicated that they have formulated long-term development plans to promote their growth in line with national economic and social development. The Committee stressed the importance of involving the local population in such planning, both through large-scale opinion surveys and extensive consultations with all levels of government and concerned parties. It was also recommended that cities involve their rural hinterlands in the planning process, following an agropolitan approach.