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Chapter 4: India
is one of the world's oldest civilizations with a rich cultural heritage.
It is one of the world's largest countries, second only to China. Like
China, it is now classified as a poor and "developing" country. Like all
developing countries, it is experiencing rapid population growth and a
major social transformation from rural, agrarian to urban, industrial
society. Its size and its centrality in the world's current "development
process" indicate that what happens in India will constitute a major part
of Asia's modern economic development, and will also have a marked effect
on the entire world. Thus it is appropriate that any study of Asia's urban
development include the example of India. Table 1. Size and Some Other Characteristics of Population of the World, India, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Bombay and Calcutta
* Sample registration scheme
(1988) Registrar General ofIndia, New Delhi. A. The State Environments 1. Maharashtra Maharashtra, with 78 million population, ranks third in size after
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar on the demographic map of India (1991). The decennial
growth of population in the richest and most developed state of the country
in 1991 was 24.3 percent, slightly higher than the all India decimal growth
rate of 23.50 percent. The state has been divided into 30 districts, 303
tehsils (Taluka or Sub-district), 307 towns and 41833 villages, of which
2479 are uninhabited. It is the home of the largest number of cinema theatres
and head offices of imptS'rtant public and private organizations including
banks and financial corporations. The state has a large number of educational
and research organizations of national and international repute. 2. West Bengal West Bengal
with a population of 68 million in 1991, is spread over an area of 89
thousand square kilometers., is ranked as the fourth state of the country
with 16 districts, 291 towns and 41,000 villages. The decennial growth
rate of population in 1991 was 2.4 percent which was slightly lower than
that of Maharashtra. The state has a rich heritage of education and culture.
B. The Cities The city of Bombay, the capital of the Maharashtra
state and the principal sea and airport of Western India, is one of a
group of islands lying off the coast of the northern Konkan. Since it
is located on a peninsula with water on three sides, the geographical
boundaries of Bombay are un expandable. Though there has been much controversy
as to the source from which the island derived its name, the opinions
seem to converge on the view that the Goddess Mumba Ai is likely to be
the source of the Marathi name of Bombay, whereas 'Bombay' was derived
from the Portuguese name BOMBAIM, meaning a good bay. Although Bombay traces its origin the 17th century, it grew very little
in its first decades. Even by the late eighteenth century, it was primarily
a marine supply point, which, unlike Calcutta and Madras, had few links
to the hinterland. Some industries were in existence for serving the handicraft
needs like potteries, manufacturing of copper and brass vessels, gold
smiths and hand weaving of both silk and cotton. During the early nineteenth
century, Bombay's growth resulted from military and economic factors including
the development of foreign shipping services. The first textile mill was
established in Bombay in 1851. It was followed by several other cotton
textile mills. The onwards growth of Bombay from the second hal~ of the
nineteenth century was linked to trade. 2. Calcutta The existing
Calcutta grew out of three villages of Sutanuti, Kalikata and Govindapur
where the British first settled in the late 17th century. The site offered
several advantages, which were instrumental in forming the nucleus of
what would be in the 19th century one of the greatest commercial centers
of the east. These included vital factors such as, a good anchorage, the
foreign market of Betor and a trading settlement with a permanent 'Haat'
(market) operated two days week. It also lay close to the village of Kalighat,
with its temple of the Goddess Kali, a reputed place of worship attracting
pilgrims throughout the year. Throughout the 18th century the port grew
gradually, and more villages on both sides of the Hooghly River were added
to the city. Because of these developments, the population of Calcutta increased from 200,000 in 1822 to 413,000 in 1850 and then to about 1 million in 1911. An increase of almost two-and-ahalf times. The irregular spatial growth of habitation, the economic parameters offering service to a large number of productive centers, the continuous influx of population for a variety of jobs were the factors responsible for rapid growth of urbanization in Calcutta. By the turn of nineteenth century, the city had almost reached the saturation point because of the inflow of population, and consequently it started spilling over some new activities into other towns of its hinterland. This included the shifting of the national capital from Calcutta to Delhi. The division of the erstwhile composite province of Bengal after partition of the country (1947) further weakened Calcutta's urban economic base. However, its supremacy in eastern India is still intact. C. Population Growth Tables 2 and 3, and
figure 1 show roughly similar patterns of population growth for the two
port cities. Both grew rather slowly, at about 1 percent per year through
the first part of this century. World War II brought a great increase
in the growth rates, but the timing differed slightly. Due to its eastern
location, facing the Japanese invasion of Burma, Calcutta grew most rapidly
in the decade 1941-51, with the grow rate reaching 5 percent per year.
Bombay's growth rate also jumped in that decade, but only to 2.5 percent
per year, doubling to over 5 percent in the next decade, 1951-61. After
the great spurt both cities experienced a decline in the growth rates,
but the decline came earlier and was more marked in Calcutta. The growth of industry during the nineteenth century resulted in high rates of in-migration to both cities. Although detailed migration data are not available until 1941, and then only for Bombay, it is clear that net migration has been a major source of the both cities' growth until very recently. As table 3 shows, migration into Bombay was almost four times the level of natural increase in the decade of rapid growth 1941-51. Since 1951, however, net migration and natural increase have contributed about equally to the city's growth. Figure 1. Population Change
Table 2. Population Size and Average Annual Growth Rates in Bombay City and Greater Bombay*
*Source: District Census Hand Book, Town Directory, 1981 Registrar General of India. **Census of India 1991. Provisional Population Totals, Registrar General of India, New Delhi. Table 3. Population Size and Average Annual Growth Rate in Calcutta City and Greater Calcutta
The industrial growth that has attracted the migrants and
contributed to Bombay's development has been rapid, diverse, and complex.
The number of industries almost doubled from about 4,000 in 1961 to almost
7800 in 1981. This also brought a growth of industrial workers, from 500,000
to over 600,000. From that point, however, the number of industries remained
roughly stable, and the number of industrial workers declined to just
over 450,000. Textiles and metal and engineer industries have dominated
the number of establishments, currently accounting for about half of all
industries. There are also substantial numbers of printing, petrochemical
and consumer goods industries. And, of course, Bombay is the country's
cinema capital, in fact producing more films than any other city in the
world. Independence has brought a slowing of growth, however. As
the result of a partition of The distinct feature of Calcutta's industrial structure was its
dominance by private enterprise. There was no investment from the public
sectors undertaken until around the 1960s. Private capital also became
scarce, leading to stagnation in Calcutta industries. The main reason
given by the government for this near-stagnation of the industrial sector
was a "shortage of power and certain raw materials and unfavorable price
differentials of certain commodities." The impact of the power crisis
on the production and export of engineering goods was visible. D. Port Development India
has a long sea coast of 6000 kms which is served by 10 major ports, 22
intermediate ports, and 204 minor ports. Of the ten major ports, five
(Bombay, Calcutta, Cochin, Madras and Vishakhapatnam) were built by the
British, one (Mormugao) by Portuguese and the remaining four (Kandla,
New Mangalore, Paradip and Tuticorin) by the Government of India after
the country gained independence. The annual total traffic handled by these
ports increased about from about 16 million tonnes at the time of independence
in 1947 to 80 million tonnes in 1981 and to almost 150 million tonnes
by 1990. Table 4. Ships Entering Bombay and Calcutta Ports, 1951-90
Table 5. Volume (tons) of Cargo Handled in Bombay and Calcutta Ports, 1950-89
The relative growth patterns of the two ports is quite evident in these tables, but other points can be noted as well. In 1950 these two major ports handled almost all of India's foreign shipping, with Calcutta taking slightly more than half and Bombay slightly less than half. Four decades later other ports had taken much of the increase in shipping, and Bombay had surpassed Calcutta as the leading port. in 1989 Bombay handled 20 percent, and Calcutta just under ten percent of the volume of India's ten major ports. Bombay's number of ships has increased each period except for the drastic 25 percent drop in 1970-1. Calcutta showed first a rise in the number of ships until 1960, then a drastic decline of 40 percent in the two decades to 1980, and finally a rise again of about 30 percent in the last decade. In volume of cargo, Bombay has registered a steady increase n all years except 1970, averaging 3.6 percent per year for the four decades. Since its low point in 1970, growth has averaged 4 percent per year. Calcutta experienced an overall average annual growth rate of only 1 percent for the four decades, but this masks a period of drastic decline of almost 40 percent for two decades, then growing steadily at an average annual rate of 4.8 ~rcent since the low point of 1970. Figure 2. Port Activity
The area of the Bombay port extends all along the eastern water
front, adjoining the Harbor Bay. It covers about 800 hectares of land,
of which 300 hectares constitute the docks Prince's, Alexandria and Victoria
- with 51 berths. The hinterland of Bombay, which extends from Kashmir
in the north to Uttar Pradesh in the east, and Karnataka in the south,
has been connected through roads with other fast developing ports, including
Kandla in the north and Goa in the south. Since 1973, Bombay port has been receiving full containerized
vessels. For example, in 1980-1981, it handled about 101,000 TEUS which
is expected to reach 200,000 in 1991. The Jetty at Trombay and Modern
Oil terminal of Butucher Islands can accommodate tankers of 15 thousand
and 53 thousand dwt. A proposal is also underway to build more berths
at the Butcher Islands so as to increase its tanker receiving capacity,
initially to eighty thousand dwt., and eventually to 125,000 dwt. Calcutta's port, 154 kilometers away from the Bay of Bengal, is located on the left bank of the Hooghly river. Although Calcutta jetties were constructed in 1869, the port started functioning in 1870 when the Calcutta Port Act came into existence. It now has four docks, and the modern deep-water dock at Haldia, 80 kilometers downriver from the city. All of them provide about 37 along-side berths with single to three- storied sheds. In addition, there are river side jetties in Calcutta, river side oil jetties in Haldia and six jetties at Budge Budge. All berths possess cranes operated by steam, diesel, or electricity with varying capacities from 2 to 200 tons. Some of the other equipment available to Calcutta port include mobile
cranes, fork lifts, tractors, trailers, pay loaders, etc. The port provides
about 397,000 square meters of warehousing accommodation and 83,000 square
meters of covered space for storage purposes. The main items of exports
include coal, tea, jute, gunnies, shellac, linseed (oils), hides, mica,
sugar, iron scraps, finished steel and engineering goods. Machinery, hardware,
food grains, petroleum, cement, phosphates and fertilizers are the principal
items of import. Calcutta has been a major port for handling a significant
portion of dry cargo in the foreign trade of the country. It serves the
entire north and north east of India as neighboring countries such as
Nepal and Bhutan. III. Problems and Issues of the Cities Bombay and Calcutta, which have attained heights of achievements in business and commercial spheres and are the commercial nerve centers, have been facing multifarious problems of a large magnitude. Their large population base and rapid growth far exceed the infrastructure of these cities. There is hardly any scope to expand the available infrastructure. Land, particularly in Bombay, housing, transportation and other basic civic amenities are becoming scarcer everyday, particularly in the low class busties and the less affluent suburbs where the teeming millions live. The result is very poor living conditions. The cities have become nightmares and the lives of the people are becoming filled with disappointment and frustration. In addition, these huge urban centers add to the difficulties and problems of the state, region, and the country as a whole. This section will attempt to highlight the problems and the responsible factors which these metropolitan towns are facing. The urgent need to take some drastic steps is apparent. Unless something is done, the problems could become 'beyond solution'. A. Bombay As stated earlier, the geographical boundaries of the island city prohibit the expansion of Bombay. The influx of population tends to increase density which poses pressure on the existing infrastructure. Bombay is not only counted amongst the world's largest ten metropolises, it also has the distinction of being one of the largest slum cities of the world, with an estimated 1.2 million slum dwellers in 1971. In addition, the concentration of industrial activities presents serious transportation problems. About 74 percent of the formal jobs are located in the island city where only 35 percent of greater Bombay's population resides. This leads to heavy commuting problem. Water and air pollution have also created serious environmental and health problems. Untreated liquid waste is deposited in the sea and tons of toxic gases including exhausts from automobiles are released into the air everyday. 1. Housing Providing shelter to Bombayites
is a major problem. The acute housing shortage has its roots in World
War II when population increased without any increase in building activity
due to scarcity of building materials. The Rent Restoration Act created
further problems by discouraging landlords from maintaining old buildings.
Thus, not only were few new buildings put up, the existing ones were not
repaired. Efforts to rectify the situation have been going on but they
are overwhelmed by population increase, limited resources and the Rent
Restriction Act. 2. Recreational and Open Spaces The rapidly increasing population of Bombay has put greater pressure on the recreational and open spaces needed by the city. There is a severe shortage of all forms of parks, recreational facilities and open spaces. A recent survey reveals that the city has roughly 0.1 hectare of open space per 1000 population as against 3 hectares in Britain, and 4 hectares in the USA. In Delhi, the ratio of open space is 1.4 hectares per 1000 population. With the lack of resources and effective policies to prevent overcrowding and high density, the situation is doomed to get worse. 3. Educational Facilities The system of public education in Bombay is being organized in three major progressive stages: primary education, secondary education and higher education. The Constitution of India gives the government the responsibility for providing free and compulsory education for children of ages 6 to 11. With this mandate, large numbers of children are seeking schooling. Buildings are inadequate, equipment and facilities are limited and the pupil load per teacher very high. Despite these problems, greater Bombay and even the progressive state of Maharashtra are much ahead of several other cities and states of the country. Greater Bombay has two universities and several national research institutions catering to specialized types of training and research. In addition, Bombay has literacy rates higher than the state or than all India, as table 6 shows. Table 6. Literacy Rates of Maharashtra and India in 1981 Census
4. Health and Family Welfare India is committed
to provide Health facilities for all by 2000 AD. Therefore, a network
of service facilities has been created all over the country. The quality
and intensity of these services vary because health is considered a state
subject. In other words, each state has to make provision for the health
services of its own people out of its own exchequer. Since Maharashtra
is one of the states with higher revenues, its health and family welfare
service infrastructure standards are higher than other states. Thus, its
health status is better than the other urban areas in the country. The
performance in the urban areas of Maharashtra state is considerably better
than in the rural areas. The state as a whole has 125 general hospitals,
74 dispensaries, 10 TB hospitals, and a total of 13,000 beds. 5. Transport The biggest problem for the
residents of Bombay is the public transportation system, which is aggravated
by the geography of the city, the spatial distribution of jobs and the
location of housing. About three-fourths of the formal jobs in Bombay
are located within the island city while two-thirds of the entire population
resides in suburbs. Thus, a large number of people have to commute long
distances daily for jobs. Though the people of Bombay are fortunate in
having a fairly developed suburb train service which provides a little
over 5 million people journeys daily, the problems of over congestion
and security need special attention. Between the suburban trains and intra-city
bus service, about 12 million daily journeys are undertaken by Bombayities.
It has been estimated that the public transportation system accommodates
about 90 percent of all daily journeys. A recent study showed that roughly
40 percent of the transportation is provided by the suburban railway,
another 40 percent by public busses, ten percent each by private automobiles
and taxis, with about 1 percent each in school busses and motorcycles.
Even this substantial public transportation system, however, is inadequate
to meet the demands of a rapidly increasing number of people and workers
who have to commute daily. Table 7. Growth of Motor Vehicles in Greater Bombay (1951 - 1989)
Source: Transport Commissioner, Government of Maharashtra, Bombay 6. Environmental Problems Bombay suffers from serious air and noise pollution. Approximately
2,300 tons of pollutants are discharged into the environment of Bombay
everyday. In the evening, the cool air causes the stagnation of air along
with the toxic pollutants which remain in the city atmosphere. Being near
the sea, the moist air combines with dust and gases, to create a hazy
smog that is injurious to the population. 7. Civic Problems, Utility Services, and Power Supply Bombay is growing under back-breaking burdens: piled up garbage,
inadequate water supply, poor roads, traffic bottlenecks, unauthorized
constructions, shortage of power, and mushroom growth of slums and pavement
dwellers. The city produces an estimated 4,000 tons of solid waste daily.
This is carted away in the open lorries which often spill wastes while
carrying it to the garbage dumps. The cleanliness of the roads thus becomes
another major problem. In addition, 1,600 million liters of liquid-waste
is deposited in the sea, also creating serious environmental pollution. B. Calcutta Understanding Calcutta
means trying to understand its two angles. From the view point of Eastern
India, Calcutta has been the sole metropolis for nearly two centuries.
From the view point of India, as a whole, it is the biggest agglomeration
after having been the capital for 140 years of British expansion. It has
witnessed the genesis of modern India. Once a brilliant symbol of power
and wealth, second only to London, Calcutta has fallen on b1}.d days.
It has become a major symbol of urban misery. Since independence in 1947,
the growth of its population no longer denotes its strength, power, and
wealth. Rather, it points to a tragic imbalance in growth. 1. Housing Heavy pressure of the population on per unit area
of the city has created diverse and acute problems for Calcutta's growth
and welfare and made the city a test case of modern urbanization. The
living conditions in its bustees (localities) demonstrate deplorable conditions.
They are badly constructed, low roofed, shared by many families and by
many people within the families. Still, they look better than the smaller
dwellings of squatters found on the sides of public thorough-fares, on
the banks of canals, and along the railway tracks. A typical bustee has
its own drainage system, a number of public and private taps and water
tankers. According to one estimate, one person out of three in Calcutta
lives in such a bustees. It was estimated that in the CMD area about 1.3 million housing units will be needed to eliminate the existing over-crowding and another 1.1 million will be needed to accommodate the growing population. A number of agencies including the Calcutta Housing Board the Calcutta Housing Trust, the Howrah Improvement Trust and the Housing Directorate are working in this sector. Still, the average annual output in the form of houses ready to use, is only about 15 thousand units. All this suggests the growing acuteness of housing shortages in the Calcutta Metropolitan District including Calcutta agglomeration. 2. Recreational and Open spaces The pattern of land use is such that only about 5.9 percent
of the land falls into the category of recreational use and open spaces.
As per available data, the approximate land used under respective functions
in Calcutta city is seen in table 8. Table 8. Land Use in Calcutta
3. Educational Facilities Calcutta has been
one of the major centers of learning in India. The University of Calcutta,
the chief educational center, has produced a large number of scientists,
scholars, and poets of national and international repute who have kept
the country's head high in scholastic and scientific achievements. There
are also two other universities: Jadavpur Engineering University and Rabindra
Bharati University. Overall, the city has 49 colleges, 95 secondary schools,
403 middle schools and 2113 primary schools. The significant progress
in the universalization of elementary education in the state, including
Calcutta, owes much to the government policy of providing free school
education supplemented by the distribution of free text books to the students
in the first through fifth standards. 4. Health and Family Welfare Respiratory and diarrheal diseases constitute a major cause
of morbidity and mortality in Calcutta. The health care system of the
city remains primarily a hospital based curative system. In 1971, there
were about 135 hospitals with 16,000 beds, and 156 dispensaries. The hospital
bed to population ratio was worked out to be 1.9 per 1,000 population
for the Calcutta Metropolitan District. However, the Calcutta agglomeration
had a slightly higher bed-population ratio (2.1 beds per 1,000 population).
The major problem in regard to medical service is its uneven distribution
in the city with higher concentrations on the eastern side and in the
area of middle income population. The poor population in the bustees remain
unattended. In recent years, Calcutta authorities have emphasized the
opening of dispensaries. Mobile polyclinics have also started functioning
in areas where no static facilities were available. However, financial
constraints have affected these schemes quite heavily. 5. Transport The Hooghly River divides the Calcutta Metropolitan District
into east and west. There are only three bridges and limited ferry service
over about 85 kilometers of the river. This has led to a highly independent
transport systems for the east and west sides of the river. Due to the
extremely high population density and the limited road surface (only 43
roads are accessible to public conveyance), Calcutta has a most chaotic
and slow traffic movement, which cannot be compared with any other urban
areas of the country. Transport planning no doubt existed for the last
century, but due to a scarcity of vacant land, it could not be instituted
effectively. According to the Calcutta Metropolitan Authority, roads account
for only 6 percent of land in Calcutta compared with 25 percent in Delhi.
Another difficulty in planning road transport system is periodic flooding
which cuts off large sections of the city. The problem of pedestrians in Calcutta cannot he overlooked. Because of the use of pavements for other commercial and residential purposes and heavy traffic rush, the pedestrians have to walk on the road with all the risks involved. During the peak hours, this leads to bigger traffic jams with both pedestrians and vehicular traffic involved in a grim struggle resulting in the violation of rules and accidents. 6. Civic Problems, Utility Services, and Power Supply City life also suffers from an inadequacy of all basic
amenities including water supply, drainage, sewerage and transportation.
Assuming a minimum requirement of water of 40 gallons per day for an individual,
Calcutta's 10 million people will need 400 million gallons per day (mgd).
The WHO standard is 50 percent higher than this. In fact, the supply of
water in Calcutta is merely 140-150 mgd, reflecting a good deal of water
shortage. For many people, there is no major supply of water and the majority
of the people have to get by with 2 to 5 gallons per capita per day. The
main reason for this shortfall is the old age of pumps and machinery and
innumerable leaks and cracks in the supply pipeline. With regard to environmental sanitation, the Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority has executed a program of solid waste management to deal with the daily accumulation of 2,500 tons of solid waste. It has also converted more than 50,000 privies into service latrines. One of the city's major environmental projects is the Cattle Resettlement Project, which aims at moving many of its 2,200 un-hygienic cattle sheds to cattle colonies in the city's outer areas. The supply of clean air to the Calcutta population has been for longer duration (268 days) in a year compared to that of Bombay. Power shortage remains one of the most important problems of Calcutta due to stagnation in the industrial sector. The city has an average power deficit of more than 30 percent in recent years, compared to a national average deficit of about 8 percent only. As a result, there have been frequent power interruptions. This has affected the daily life of the people of Calcutta, the economic situation, industrial development, the functioning of the Calcutta port, and all other concerned activities. Although steps are being taken by the West Bengal Government to expand 10 power stations by 1990, implementation of many of the projects depends on the financial clearance and provisions by the central government. Calcutta is moving towards decay unless some drastic measures are taken. IV. Perception of Administrators on City Problems The city's rapidly growing population has created a number
of problems. The extent to which these problems are addressed, however,
depends in part on the perceptions of the urban administrators. They may
consider some problems more important than others, the may not view certain
conditions as problems, or they may even consider some conditions useful
for the growth and development of the city. These perceptions lead them
to either take positive action to solve or minimize problems or to ignore
the problems because of lower priority and limited resources. Thus in
order to understand why some projects have been undertaken to solve specific
problems and why the degree of emphasis on them differs, we must understand
the perceptions of the city administrators and sector heads. A. Population Growth: Rates, Causes and Consequences Most (76%) of the respondents in Bombay,
but only half (52%) in Calcutta could accurately state the size of the
city's population and the rate of growth. In both cities net migration
and natural increase contribute to the city's growth in nearly equal proportions,
though migration is slightly greater in weight. In both cities, however,
migration is seen as a major cause of growth. This perception is much
stronger in Calcutta than in Bombay, but it is the dominant perception
in both. Further, in both cities the administrators thought the rate of
growth was too high and was a major cause of many of the city's most pressing
problems. Administrators in Calcutta were especially pessimistic. They
saw as much as 70 percent of the city's population as a "floating population"
that did not own the city, did not pay for its facilities and thus produced
an adverse effect on the city. When asked about the role of the port in
accounting for past, present and future growth, the administrators in
both cities saw the port as a major factor in past growth, but they did
not see it as a major factor by itself in present or future growth.
"Bombay is loosing its originality because
migrants are becoming dominant. There has been a big gap between 'haves'
and 'have not'. The ability to purchase land amongst Bombayites is going
down. . . ."
"Higher proportion of males (part of the unique population
profile) has been causing tension in society." When asked what a reasonable growth rate would be, most administrators in both cities held it should be lower than at present, and many suggested zero growth would be best. To achieve this growth rate, more Calcutta than Bombay administrators (8 versus 5) were in favor of restricting in migration. The majority in both cities, however, (12 in Calcutta and 10 in Bombay) suggested further urban satellite development and family planning. Finally, the majority (14) in both cases said that further development and family planning were the major strategies being used to address the problems of rapid population growth. More Calcutta administrators (6 versus 2) said the city was taking actions to encourage people to move out of the city. The city administrators differed substantially in their general assessment
of the city's population. When asked to describe the general character
of the population, eight of the Bombay administrators described the population
positively as hard working, non-interfering, and disciplined. Only three
described them as young and frustrated. By contrast, in Calcutta 15 of
the administrators described the population as young, poor frustrated
male immigrants. Table 9. Spontaneous Identification of City Problems
Table 10. Five Most Serious Problems Identified from Prepared List
B. Perceptions of City Problems To understand the perception of administrators, different sector heads and elites, two types of questions were asked. First, a open question was asked to get administrators' spontaneous response on what they saw to be the problems of the city. Second, a list of possible problems was shown to the respondents and they were asked to give their perception on (i) why the problem(s) has come about, (ii) the seriousness of the problems (iii) how this perception was formed and (iv) whether any action to address the problems was taken. The next section will report on solutions. Here we shall be concerned with perceptions of problems. We can see that the different methods of posing questions brought only slightly different responses. 1. Spontaneous Identification To get spontaneous responses on the city problems, respondents
were asked to list what they perceived as the major problems facing their
city was. Since administrators could list more than one problem, we identified
a total of 104 problems in Bombay and 90 in Calcutta. They are show in
table 10 in 12 different categories. Crime and urban pollution also represent serious problems in the eyes
of these administrators. These problems are mentioned by about one-fifth
of the administrators in each city. 2. Five Most Serious City Problems After the respondents had seen the longer list of problems,
they were asked to list the five most serious problems. This approach
had the advantage that they were introduced to all possible city problems
and then were asked about the five most serious problems. Their responses
are provided in Table 10. The classification used for the spontaneous
identification is duplicated in table 10 so that direct comparisons can
be made of the two methods for identifying urban problems. In this case,
the total number of problems identified as top five problems was only
59 in the case of Bombay and 77 in Calcutta. There are also some interesting, though generally minor, differences between the two cities in the priority of problems identified in these different ways. For population problems, Bombay remains the same, but the priority increases substantially in Calcutta. If we recall that Calcutta officials were less aware of the real size and growth rate of the population than were those in Bombay, we can speculate that their lack of knowledge on this issue leads them to give it lesser priority unless they are specifically asked to assess the seriousness of the problem. Other changes are relatively minor. The priority of crime increases slightly in Bombay and drops slightly in Calcutta. Education increases slightly in Bombay but remains the same in Calcutta. Health and pollution change considerably, but this is because the two are classified together in the list of issues given to the administrators. 3. Problems Created by the Port The administrators were also asked to what extent they thought
the port itself constituted to the city's problems. More than half in
each city considered the port beneficial rather than a problem. The following
quotes provide a flavor of their perceptions. V. Solution to Various City Problems One aim of this study is to understand the work administrators undertake to address the various city problems. The hope is that sharing ideas and experiences aDlong administrators will provide new ideas for addressing the many problems urban administrators face. To obtain information on projects, we first developed an inventory of projects. We "3.sked administrators first to identify some of the major projects being undertaken in the city. This provided a short list of what can be called big projects that receive considerable publicity. We then asked them for ideas or observations about projects that were working or that would work to address their most pressing problems. Naturally, the ideas of projects varied by the technical service of the respondents. Nonetheless, we were able to generate a list of about a dozen ideas and projects that would be useful. Finally, we asked for more details on a few projects that could be treated as case studies of addressing urban problems. Here we can first make some general observations about the inventory of projects, and then present the case studies. A. Inventory of the Projects Tried So Far In Bombay administrators identified five major projects. One
was a major family welfare project, with World Bank assistance, which
is designed to reduce infant mortality and increase family planning coverage
in the city. It is in fact part of an all India Population Project IV
supported by the World bank project, and in this case linked to a state
population project. There has been substantial success in extending health
services, reducing both infant mortality and fertility. Finally, the
Government of India is assisting the Bombay Port Trust to expand port
facilities. The twelve lesser projects identified by the administrators of both cities
can be classified by the major problems listed in table 10 and. 11. Transportation
projects are common to both cities. Bombay has 5 projects and Calcutta
4 aimed at the transportation problems of the cities. Building and widening
new roads and constructing flyovers are important projects for both cities.
Both also plan to separate truck and bus parking, and Calcutta plans to
separate truck traffic in the city. Calcutta also plans to extend its
metro rail service. Bombay officials will attempt to rationalize and speed
up the flow of traffic, and they also think it will be useful to create
a new administrative structure for dealing more directly and more efficiently
with the transportation problem. B. Case Studies Five case studies, three for Bombay and two for Calcutta, are developed here to provide more detailed information on the nature of the problem and the manner in which that problem is being addressed. In Bombay these are the Kanya Kalan Yonja scheme for improving the position of female children, the Nehru Port (Nhava Sheva) project, and the family welfare project for Bombay's slums. In Calcutta the studies include the Kalyan Satellite Township project and the Calcutta underground railway project. 1. BOMBAY: Kanya Kalyan Yojna (Scheme for the Welfare
of Female Children of Bombay-Maharashtra) Preference for a son has been found to be one of
the impediments in the acceptance of the small family norm in India. A
male child is not only considered to be the source of continuing the family
name, he is also the performer of religious rites during and after the
death of his parents to help them attain salvation (moksha). He is also
seen to be security or insurance for the aged parents. Furthermore, the
status of a mother in the family or society is determined by the number
of sons she bears. Therefore, couples do not accept family planning methods
until they have one or two male children. Research has repeatedly shown
that the preferred family size is two male children and one female child. The Project This project has a twofold objective. First, to improve the
status of a girl child and provide her all the benefits of education,
employment and marriage. This is expected to improve the overall welfare
of the family. Second, the project hopes to increase young couples' acceptance
of terminal methods of fertility limitation by reducing the degree of
son preference. It is hoped that though this project the family planing
program will receive a boast and at the same time the well-being of the
family will improve. Current Status The overall responsibility for the execution of the project
lies with the Assistant Director of Family Welfare, who ensures that all
the conditions have been fulfilled by the concerned couple. However, since
this project has been introduced in all of Maharashtra, it is being implemented
by the medical officer in charge of the service unit where sterilization
is performed. The necessary records are maintained in the office of the
district health officer so that further followup action, like the renewal
of the certificate, takes place at the appropri~te time and place. As
a part of the publicity of this project, the district magistrates were
requested to use all available media with the help of district publicity
officers of the health department. If problems arise, the medical officer
of the service unit where sterilization is performed can contact the responsible
authority of the state government through the Assistant Director, Family
Welfare, Maharashtra. Difficulties in Implementation In between the period of the project's initiation and extension,
funding problems arose. Although the family welfare program is centrally
funded, this project is sanctioned by the state government. Our interviews
identified a number of difficulties with the project. 2. BOMBAY: Nhava Sheva Port Trust Since the mid-1960's, the existing Bombay Port Trust
has been functioning at the saturation level. The average occupancy of
all the berths has been ah'nost 90 percent and thus the waiting time for
the ships has become quite long. Also, Bombay Port imposes restrictions
on the size of ships entering, which could not be improved upon for want
of larger draft or beam re-. quirements. In terms of land, there was no
extra area around the existing port which could be developed. The Project Nhava Sheva Port was a unique project since it included the complete spectrum of modern developments - structuring of a new organizational setup with modern practices including complete automation, computerization and internationally accepted work norms. Apart from the facilities for equipment, the port will have a self-contained township, draft and back up area. It was also proposed to develop this port in such a way that it will act as a major catalyst for stimulating trade and commerce in the country. The port is planned to handle the import of dry bulk cargo and the export as well as import of container cargo. In the first phase of the project, three container berths, two dry bulk berths and one service berth costing about Rs. 6 billion will be constructed. As a result, it was expected that around 4.5 million tonnes of dry bulk and 6.0 million tonnes of container traffic would be managed by 1992-93. The amount of cargo handled will further go up to about 12 million tonnes by the year 2000. Current Status The Nhava Sheva Port with a water area of 42 kilometers
is situated along the eastern shore of Bombay harbor with water depths
of 12 to 15 meters. This port has a common channel with the Bombay Port
up to the entry to the Nhava Sheva water area. Its operation commenced
on May 26, 1989, when inauguration was performed by the then prime minister
of India and the Port was dedicated to the first Prime Minister of India,
Pandit Jawharlal Nehru. A central computer system has been provided for
remote operations and control of the bulk terminal, and also control and
supervision of the container terminal. Bulk and container terminals are
also linked with the national, state, rail and road networks. As of March
1990, the Port had a total staff strength of nearly 1,000 persons, including
113 officers. The recruitment programm(!d for the first phase of operation
has been mostly completed. Some 15 training programs for the training
of newly-recruited staff, were organized in 1989-1990. Difficulties in Implementation There is a problem of access to the Port because of poor road
and rail connections. Office accommodation and other service facilities
are yet to appear and staff has to divide their time between the new work
situation and the old Port of Bombay. The revised project cost has gone
up to nearly Rs. 10 billion. Financial constraints are another important
factor in the slow progress of the Port. Due to poor communication links,
the development of necessary facilities could not be undertaken until
more money was available for improving the infrastructure. It has also
been reported that almost all the operators are still using the original
Bombay facilities. However, both construction and cargo handling-work
are in progress and Jawaharlal Nehru Port has hope for a bright future.
When completed and made fully functional, this port will give relief to
Bombay by diverting the growth in sea cargo traffic outside the city limits.
It will make it possible to efficiently handle large, modern and specialized
vessels. 3. BOMBAY: Improving the Availability and Quality of Family
Welfare Services for Urban Slums in Bombay It has been estimated that of the absolute increase of roughly 2.3 million persons during 1971-1981 in Bombay the net migration contributed about 1.4 million, or more than 50 percent. Much of this increase is being accommodated not by good housing, but by slums. The slum population, which now constitutes about half of the total population, is growing more rapidly than the population of the total municipality. Furthermore, although Bombay has the most diversified economy and higher average income levels than the country as a whole, the living conditions in the slums are appallingly bad. The vital rates - birth, death and infant mortality rates - among slum dwellers and other low income people are significantly higher than for other sectors of the population.. The outreach of health services in these ~reas is very poor. Therefore, a project for improving the availability and quality of family welfare services for urban slums in greater Bombay was proposed and received financial assistance from the World Bank. The Project The project entitled "India Population Project V" was designed
to support the policy of the government of India of improving the availability
and quality of family welfare and mother and child health care services
for poor urban families including, slums, pavement dwellers and low income
population. More specifically, the project had the following objectives. To improve the quality of services, the project envisaged intensive training
of the staff working. Therefore, a training cell has been proposed to
coordinate the training component with local training institutions such
as, the Civic Training and Research Institute at Borivali, the Central
Family Welfare and Research Centre at Deonar, and medical colleges. It
has been calculated that over the project period of seven years, about
8,000 people of different categories would participate in either pre-service
or in-service training, which will help to improve the quality of services. Current Status The India Population Project V, with an approved cost of Rs.
483 million, was launched in September 1988 for a period of seven years
(to 1995). Encouraged by its early success, similar projects have also
been proposed for Madras and Chinglapet district in Tamil Nadu. As per
reports received from the appropriate authorities, the project has shown
substantial achievements towards reaching the set objectives. For instance,
59 health posts started providing services, 5 postpartum centers became
operational and about 80 percent of the sanctioned posts were filled.
Training of medical doctors and paramedics has also begun (March 1991). Table 11. Impacts of Population Project V in Bombay
4. Calcutta: Kalyani Satellite Township Project The Kalyani Satellite Project of Calcutta was conceived by the then Chief Minister of West Bengal, Dr B C Roy, in early 1950s. The main purpose behind the development of this township was to ease the pressure of the rapidly growing urban population of Calcutta and thereby lessen the burden on the city's infrastructure and utility services. T4e idea was to have a well-planned city near Calcutta which could provide a less stressful living environment for the urban population. The Project It was proposed to set up this project 50 kms north of Calcutta with wide roads, underground sewage, schools, hospitals, playgrounds and parks, stadia, landscaped picnic spots, cinema halls, markets, etc. Accordingly, a master plan for a 10 thousand acre township was prepared to accommodate a population of 250,000. It was also proposed that the government offices would be shifted to this second centre of administration. Some businesses would also relocate, and two universities, one higher secondary school and three secondary schools would be opened to meet the educational needs of the residents. Hundreds of acres of land were reserved for various government offices and departments, such as 120 acres for commerce and industries and 45 acres for fisheries. Similarly, a 90 acre plot of land for a lake reserve was established. Moreover, to cater to the medical and health needs of the residents, a heart clinic with facilities for open heart surgery was set up. Approximately 200 kilometers of good quality roads were constructed. Thus, every effort was made to have a comprehensive and effective project. Current Status Despite all these facilities, Kalyani did not attract people. According to one estimate, the total population of this township is now approximately 70,000. The plan for shifting the bulk of government offices did not materialize. It was not only the bureaucrats who resisted being away from the hub of activity at Calcutta, but also the business community who put up a strong opposition to the shift. Only a few retired defense service officers, administrators and others were saddled with non-transferable land in Kalyani. Also, though land was earmarked for setting up of number of markets (one each for each of the four blocks in this township), not very many people felt encouraged to start businesses there. Thus, the land meant for commercial complexes was used for other purposes. One such complex has been allowed to be converted into a 'Meena Bazar' with semi-permanent stalls occupied by hawkers. Two universities started working but neither of could boast of academic excellence. Similarly, the space reserved for industries away from the residential colonies was used for some other purpose. It is unfortunate that the public sector Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) has set up a plant near the residential area. A resin factory of Allied Aeronautics has also been built nearby. This has created a constant fear of gas leakage either at the lac plant or from benzene stored in underground tanks of the resin factory. Thus, the residential potential of the area is being destroyed as political opportunism destroys popular trust and public land changes hands without proper authorization. Since the township was capable of providing civic amenities and related utility services to 250,000 people and since only one-third of this number actually occupy the township, the per capita cost has gone up tremendously. The result is that maintenance has become a very costly. For example the tarred roads have developed large weeds and sewage and water lines are gradually getting destroyed. Only 25 kilometers of the 190 kms of roads of the township can be repaired. Factors Responsible for Failure of Project The satellite township of Kalyani is described universally
as "Dr. B. C. Roy's dream child." This project, which could have rivalled
prestigious Jamshedpur or Chandigarh projects, remained mainly on paper
and was forgotten by the government, town planners and the public. Why
was it so? What were the factors responsible for the project's failure? Many of the plot owners held their land for 30 years and construction
of buildings never commenced. Although the state government has very recently
issued ultimatums to land owners for the construction of houses, results
are yet to be seen. It might be due to the typical apathy of the state
government that the Kalyani project did not succeed. Corrective Measures Interest in Kalyani
was revived in the early 1970s when planners looked for a way to ease
the pressure on Calcutta. As a first step, the opening of the Barackpur
- the Kalyani express-way in 1989, took place, which allowed smooth commuting
between Calcutta and Kalyani. 5. Calcutta: Underground Metro Rail Service To solve the city's growing traffic and transport problems, a project for an underground railway was conceived in 1949 by the then Chief Minister of West Bengal, Dr. B. C. Roy, the architect of modern Bengal. Roads account for only 6 percent of the city's area and the crush of housing together with the high population density leave no room for expansion or widening of the road surfaces. A city survey was conducted by a French team around 1949 which pointed to the need for an underground transit system in Calcutta. However, the railway construction never started due to the prohibitive costs of the project. In the late 1960s, a technological-economic feasibility study was undertaken, which again identified the necessity of an underground metro rail service to solve problems related to transport and road traffic. It was suggested that the project could be taken up in a phased fashion. In the first stage, the underground railway could be developed by linking Dumdum Tollygunge corridor from north to south. This suggestion proved to be the most viable and useful solution. The Project The underground metro rail project, at a planned cost about Rs. 1.4 billion for construction of about 17 kilometers of the Dumdum-Tollygunge stretch, was sanctioned in 1972 and scheduled to be completed in 1978. It was proposed to begin work on underground transport for nearly 25 percent of the commuter traffic (6.5 million) in the first phase. Accordingly the trains were expected to run every two minutes carrying a passenger load of nearly 60,000 people an hour each day. It was made clear in the project itself that if this load was not provided, there would be no social or financial benefit accruing from the project at all. Also, it would lead to shelving of the subsequent phases extending the line to other areas of the city. Current Status The metro rail service of Calcutta, the pride of its citizens,
started operating in October 1984, almost seven years after the scheduled
completion. During these years (1984-1991), barring the initial problems,
it has more than lived up to the expectations. It has impressed the public
with its precision and punctuality, pollution-free comfortable travel,
attractive and spotless stations and the innovations to aid the rapid
dispersal of commuters. In the short span of its existence it has become
the prime tourist attraction in the city. It has received the highest
rating, as the best among the world's underground transit systems, and
has been acclaimed by the national and international media. But how effective
it really has been in solving Calcutta's intractable commuting problems,
remains a debatable issue. In 1979, the total daily passenger traffic
was about 6.6 million. On the other hand, the metro if operational at
that point of time, should have borne the burden of approximately 1.65
million, a significant figure. This would have eased the load on surface
traffic. It would have also left more room for the repair and improvement
of roads, but this is not the situation of the surface traffic problem. Factors Responsible for Shortcomings There are various reasons for the shortcomings of this project.
A few of them are highlighted below: United Nations:
World Population Chart, 1990. T B Lahiri: "Calcutta - A Million City With a Million Problems," Million
Cities of India, edited by R P Misra, Pages 47-50 |
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