SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC DEVELOPMENT IN CITY OF SURABAYA DURING 1980-1990
By Prijono Tjiptoherijanto
Indonesia

Introduction

Surabaya is the capital city of East Java. Geographically, it lies between the eastern and western parts of Indonesia, so this city plays an important role of the development of eastern part of Indonesia. Many export materials from eastern parts of Indonesia such as Kalimantan, Maluku or Irian Jaya are shipped to Surabaya before being sent to other countries. On the contrary, most of the domestic consumption that is produced in the western part of Indonesia and needed in the eastern part are shipped from the port of Surabaya.

In the national planning perspective, the city of Surabaya is planned to grow as a center of national development besides other cities such as Jakarta, Medan, Bandung, Semarang, Ujung Pandang, Manado and Banjarmasin. This hierarchy city planning is very important in redistributing all the aspects of resources including human resources across the country, especially since Indonesia is an archipelagic country. Based on social, economic, political and demographic indicators at the national level, the city of Surabaya has grown as the second important city in Indonesia after Jakarta and this is in line with the National Development Strategy. Furthermore, at the regional level, the city of Surabaya is becoming a major growth pole for East Java, Bali, West Nusa Tenggara, East Nusa Tenggara, East Timor and South Kalimantan.

Since the city of Surabaya has grown as an important center for economic development both at national and regional levels, the city itself is becoming much larger than before and now it can be classified as a metropolitan area because the number of the population already exceeded one million people. This development could create special problems for the city such as unemployment, slum areas, pollution, etc., which should be considered by the urban planners.

The next descriptions are the economic, social and demographic developments of the city since 1980 and they are followed by the special problems related to those developments. This paper ends with the policies and programs prepared by the local government aiming at solving those problems.

Economic Development

In the last 10 years, the city of Surabaya has been becoming a significant contributor to the national economic development besides the city of Jakarta. During the period between 1983 and 1993, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has been growing by around 9 percent per year on average with inflation rate of around 8 percent on average between 1987 and 1993. Moreover, in 1992, GDP of this city contributed about 16 percent to GDP of East Java and it was the highest contributor compared to other cities or localities in this province. Like other cities, GDP was dominated by manufacturing sectors and services sectors. In 1992, manufacturing sectors contributed around 20.83 percent of GDP, followed by trade, hotel and restaurant sectors (24.84 percent), finance sectors (13. 66 percent), transportation and communication sectors (12.55 percent) and services (6.53 percent). Meanwhile, in 1992, agriculture and mining sectors only contributed around 0.98 percent of GDP.

Furthermore, longitudinal data from 1988 to 1992 show that the contribution of manufacturing sectors to GDP has grown steadily, while the contribution of the two other sectors which were agriculture and services has tended to decrease. It means that Surabaya can be classified as an industrial city.

Per capita income has also increased steadily over the year. In 1987, per capita income was estimated at Rp. 1,453,000 or US$646 and it was becoming Rp.2,553,750 or US$1,135 in 1993. Per capita income of Surabaya in 1993 was relatively higher than the national level or provincial level. In 1995, per capita income is estimated at around US$1,250, even though the government statistics indicate that there are still 301,155 people or 15.67 percent of the total population with incomes below the poverty line. This number is less than that in 1990 which was 439,500 persons or 17.77 percent. The poverty line in urban areas in Indonesia is only US$0.42 per capita per day. They are generally concentrated in unplanned slums that have high population densities, substandard dwellings and inadequate infrastructure.

Besides success in reducing the number of poor people, local city government also succeeded in reducing the inequality in the income distribution. Sharing income of 40 percent of the poorest to GDP has increased from 21.9 percent in 1990 to 23. 8 percent in 1993, while that of 20 percent of the richest to GDP has decreased from 40.4 percent in s1990 to 38.5 percent in 1993.

Table 1: Economy Indicator 1987-1993

Social Development

The pattern of educational development in Surabaya is not too different from the national pattern. As a result of national education programs, the level of illiteracy rate has decreased sharply over the year. In 1980, there were 16.29 percent of population that was classified as illiterate persons, while this percentage decreased to 8.53 percent in 1990. However, data on Table-2 indicate that in 1990, the differential between males and females was still persistent. In 1990, the level of illiteracy rate among males was much lower than that among females, even though the differential level was narrow compared to that in the year of 1980.

Table 2: Illiteracy Rate in Surabaya 1980 and 1990

The level of educational attainment has also increased during the period between 1980 and 1990. In 1980, the percentage of people with low level of education (primary school or less) was 66.06 percent. This level then decreased to 44.9 percent in 1990. On the contrary, the percentage of middle (junior high school) and high (senior high school and higher) level of education has increased over the period of time. In 1980, there were 16.9 percent of population with middle level of education and they have increased to 18 percent in 1990. At the high level of education, the level increased even more sharply from 16.97 percent in 1980 to 27.8 percent in 1990 (see Table-3). This figure reflects that during the period between 1980 and 1990, the critical period in education for most students was junior high school besides the primary school. Dropout students mostly occurred in primary and secondary schools and the level of dropout students has decreased dramatically in high school.

Table-3 also indicates that the level of education among females is much lower than that among males and the differential between males and females tends to be wider at the high level of education. These conditions reflect that even in the city males still received a better benefit from family including education compared to what females received. During the period between 1980 and 1990, the percentage of females with low level of education has decreased faster than that of males (38.73 percent in 1980 to 18.7 percent in 1990 for females compared to 30.90 percent in 1980 to 17 percent in 1990 for males), but after that level, the increasing level of education among females is becoming slower than that among males. It reflects that females mostly drop out of school before finishing primary school.

Table-3: Educational Attainment in Surabaya 1980-1990 (in Percentage)

Phenomena of dropout of school among females are clearer when we analyze the table of labor force situation. The percentage of labor force among females at early age (10 years of age to 19 years of age) is much higher than that among males. It means that women in this city tend to enter the labor market earlier than men (see Table-4). Since the age between 10 years old and 19 years old is "an education age," this situation implies that the level of dropout of school among females at the secondary level of education is still unfavorable and special attention to this problems should be given by the local government.

The higher percentage of female labor force at early age also implies that the quality of female labor force was much lower than that of male labor force since the level of education that they received was lower than what males received. Again, it is clear that in term of human resource development, family tend to give the priority to son rather than to daughter. When family have a limited resource, they will send their son to school and promote their daughter to labor market.

Meanwhile, the employment structure in Surabaya reflects that this city is a highly urbanized area. People mostly work at manufacturing sectors and services sectors. The percentage of people who work at primary sectors which are agriculture and mining is less than 3 percent (see Table-5). Although there is no specific pattern of employment structure between males and females except in transportation and construction sectors, the percentage of male workers is significantly higher than that of female workers. On the contrary, female workers tend to concentrate on community, social and personal services.

Table-4: Population Aged 10 Years and Over Who
Are the Labor Force 1990 (in Percentage)

Table-5: Population Aged 10 Years and Over Who Worked During the
Previous Week by Main Industry 1990 (in Percentage)

Demographic Development

Data from Indonesia Census of Population 1990 show that around 97.47 percent of the total population in the city of Surabaya lived in the areas that were classified as urban area, while only 2.53 percent of the total population lived in rural areas. The level of urbanization in this city increased from 86.10 percent in 1980. Compared to other cities within the province, the level of urbanization in Surabaya in 1990 was the second highest after the city of Madiun (97.51 percent). If we look at the city planning in which this city is planned as the center of industry, trade, government and education, the trend of urbanization level of this city is expected. As a center of industry, trade, government and education, the percentage of population who live in agriculture sectors will decrease, while the percentage of population in non-agriculture sectors will increase. Furthermore, the development of urban facilities all over the city area will continue in line with the increasing number of population.

Even though the city of Surabaya has grown as one of the major economic growth poles in Indonesia, the local government seems to have succeeded in controlling the population growth. The annual population growth between 1980 and 1990 was 2.06 percent per year and around 1.9 percent per year during the period between 1990 and 1995. This level was much lower than the population growth in other cities, which have quite similar economic growth, such as Jakarta, Batam or Balikpapan. During the period between 1995 and 2000, the annual population growth is targeted as high as 1.75 percent and then becoming 1.49 percent during the period between 2001 and 2005. Since the level of natural increase in this city is already low and approaching the replacement level, controlling the migration aspect is becoming the highest priority of population policies in the future if the city government would reach the population growth target. Migration policy could be implemented through redistributing the center of economic development to other areas within the province or through transmigration program.

During the period between 1980 and 1995, the population growth in the city mostly related to the migration and this is a common trend all over the world since people expect that the city could provide a better life for them. Some experts (see Wirosuhardjo, 1992) estimate that the population growth of 65 percent in urban areas in Indonesia is caused by migration and reclassification and that only 35 percent is caused by natural growth. This assumption is in line with the projection done by the Office of the State Ministry for Population/NFPCB (1994) which found that in the city of Surabaya natural increase and migration are contributing to the population growth relatively at the same level, since reclassification process during that time is not counted (1.1 percent for natural increase and 0.96 percent for migration).

The survey done by the University of Brawijaya (1991) found that the main reason for moving to the city was to look for a job. Table-6 shows that 92 percent of migrants in Surabaya come to the city in search of job. Further finding from the same survey indicates that 65.1 percent of those migrants succeeded in finding a job less than 1 week after they come to the city, 22.2 percent between 1 week and 1 month, and the longest was between 6 months and 24 months (0.9 percent). This survey was designed to analyze the chain migration process, so the finding reflects that chain migration is the best solution for migrant in finding the job.

Table-6: Reason for Migration to City of Surabaya

Little bit different from population growth trend, the number of population in the city tends to increase over the period of time. In 1980, the total number of population was estimated at 2.034 million and it was growing to 2.492 million in 1990. In 1995, the total number of population in this city is projected as much as 2.758 million and it would increase to 3. 167 million in 2005. Related to the increasing number of population, the level of density has increased sharply. In 1980, per km2 land in Surabaya was occupied by 7,362 inhabitants, while that level has increased to 9,025 inhabitants in 1990. In 2005, the level of density in Surabaya is projected as high as 10,904 per km2 in 2005. These data give us the picture that the city of Surabaya is becoming denser and denser in the future unless the local government could redistribute more people to other areas in the future.

The success in controlling the population growth is hand in hand with the success in controlling all the demographic aspects which are fertility, mortality and migration. Regarding the migration level, even though the net migration is still in a positive sign that still more people come to the city than moving out of the city, compared to the other cities with the same economic growth, such as Bekasi, Tanggerang, Balikpapan or Batam, the local government succeeded in controlling this aspect. However, to reach the target of population growth of as high as 1.49 in the 2005, revising the net migration to the "negative sign" should be targeted by local government.

Level of fertility in the city of Surabaya in particular and East Java in general is known as one of the lowest in Indonesia and it has reached the replacement level. In 1994, Crude Birth Rate (CBR) was 17.96 in Surabaya and this number is the lowest in East Javawhose number was 23.6. Meanwhile, Total Fertility Rate (TFR) in 1990 was estimated at 1.9. The average number of person per household also has declined from 4.88 persons in 1980 to 4.65 persons in 1990. The figure of Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR) in this city was not different from the national figure or that in East Java which had the highest fertility rate between the age of 20-24 and 25-29. The fertility level in this city is estimated to still continue decreasing in the future.

The success in controlling the fertility aspect in East Java, particularly in Surabaya, due to the systematic and well-designed family planning program was designed by the central and local governments. Since the family planning program was launched by the government in 1972, East Java was becoming one of the first target areas of the program. Besides one of the first target area, the success in running the family planning program in this province is considered a national barometer. That way, after more than 30 years, almost all of the married young couples know and consider the motto of "small and happy family norm." Data on contraceptive use show that in 1994 the number of currently married couples was estimated at 467,609 and 347,656 couples (74. 3 percent) of them were using the modern contraceptive. This percentage was much higher than the national level that was 55 percent of all married women at the same time. Meanwhile, the other factors that also contribute to the level of fertility, such as age of first marriage and age of first birth, tend to increase over the time. In 1987, median age at first marriage in this city was estimated at around 16.8 years, while in 1994 it increased to around 18.4 years.

The other aspect of fertility that is also important to analyze is teenage fertility (15- 19 years old). This topic is important because teenage mothers and their children are at increased risk of social and health problems. Births from teenage mothers usually follow an early marriage. Because women who marry at an early age often come from poor families with low education and health status, their children are more prone to illness and to higher mortality during childhood than other children. The level of teenage fertility profile in East Java in 1994 was summarized in Table-7.

Table-7: Percentage of Teenagers Aged 15-19 Who Are Mothers or Pregnant
with Their First Child by Background Characteristics in East Java

Like fertility level, the local government also succeeded in controlling the mortality level. Crude Death Rate (CDR) in 1993 was estimated at 7.3 and it was lower than the national level at that time which was 8.9. The morbidity rate in 1993 was estimated at 36 per 1000 persons.

Meanwhile, Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) in 1990 was estimated at 45 per 1000 live births. This level decreased from around 90 per 1000 live births in 1980. Based on DHS-94, infant mortality in 1993 was estimated at around 42 per 1000 live births (see Table-8 for infant and child mortality in Java and Bali). Unfortunately, data on IMR by sex are not available. However, like the common trend on IMR, experts agree that the level of male infant mortality is relatively higher than that of female infant mortality. In 1990, the level of male infant mortality was estimated at as high as 47 per 1000 live births, while that of female infant mortality was estimated at as high as 43 per 1000 live births. In line with the decreasing level of infant mortality, life expectancy at birth in Surabaya has increased substantially. In 1990, the level of life expectancy at birth was 66 years old and it was much higher than the national level that was 59.8 years old.

Table-8: Neonatal, Postneonatal, Infant and Childhood Mortality for the
Ten Year Period Preceding the Survey
(Five Year Period for Medical Maternity Care)

Improving the quantity and quality of health services in the city could be considered a major direct factor to the decreasing level of mortality in general and infant mortality in particular, while improving the economic and social factors could be regarded as an indirect factor to this phenomena. Theoretically, both direct factor such as health facilities and indirect factor such as level of education are contributing to the infant mortality. Table-9 indicates the number of health facilities in Surabaya in 1992 and the ratio of population to expose the basic health facility. Compared to other cities in East Java, the health facilities in Surabaya are much better. This is true since Surabaya is the most developed city within the province and also the capital city of the respected province.

Table-9: Health Facilities in Surabaya 1992

City's Problems

As a highly developed region, Surabaya is considered an opportunity region by many people both from surrounding cities and outer provinces. This is indicated by the level of net migration where the total of in-migration is higher than the total of out-migration. Consequently, the number of population has increased over the period of time and it affected the level of density in the city.

For the time being, the local city government is mostly dealing with the problems related to the land use, housing, slum area, unemployment, providing the adequate city infrastructure, pollution and garbage. The total land of Surabaya is 32,636 ha. and those lands are primary used as residential area (36 percent of the city's area), agriculture in general including fishery (33 percent), industrial, public and commercial area (12 percent), special area (3 percent) and recreational, open and conservation area (17.07 percent). Compared to the open and conservation areas in Jakarta, the percentage of land use for this purpose in Surabaya is less than that in Jakarta (45 percent). The land for agricultural sector is the second highest after for residential area. However, since the contribution of agriculture sector to GDP is very small, it seems that the land use for agriculture in Surabaya is already inappropriate or underutilized.

The next descriptions are the most common city problem and the policy that are developed by the local government :

1. Housing

Regarding the limited land for residential area, the local government is promoting the development of housing in vertical ways. In the last five years, the number of apartments and condominiums has increased. However, the development of housing in horizontal ways is also still continuing through improving the quality of village (Perbaikan lingkungan kampung), new residential areas both within the city and in suburban areas.

Since the number of population in the city is continuing to increase, housing development is still becoming a major problem for the local city government. To supply an adequate and healthy housing is becoming a problem especially for poor people and seasonal migrants. The slum areas in Surabaya are estimated at around 84 ha. and they are occupied by 14,756 families. Most of the slum areas are government land.

2. Unemployment

The annual growth of labor force during the period between 1985 and 1990 was 3.9 percent and it slightly increased to 3.95 during the period between 1990 and 1993. In 1993, the total number of labor force was estimated at 1,052,750 persons. During the same year, the annual growth of labor opportunity was estimated at 3.61 percent. The unbalanced growth between labor force participation and labor opportunity created the unemployment problem. In 1993, the unemployment rate was estimated at 9.38 percent and most of them were uneducated and unskilled people.

Regarding this problem, the local government is promoting several policies and programs such as improving the quality of labor force through the Worker Training Center (BLK=Balai Latihan Kerja), transmigration program, expanding the labor opportunity through creating the industry that uses an extensive employment or labor intensive projects (Padat Karya), and promoting both national and international migration, especially among the workers (AKAD=Angkat Kerja Antar Daerah and AKAN= Angkat Kerja Antar Negara).

3. Solid Waste

Surabaya City Sanitation Office recently reported that the city discarded 1,117 tons of waste daily, of which 965 tons (around 86 percent) were handled by city employees or contractors hired by the city to collect waste. This has been an unchanged percentage for several years. Studies estimate that as much as 28.4% of uncollected waste ultimately finds its way into rivers and canals. Volume and weight of waste by source are summarized in the next table.

Table-10: Weight and Volume of Waste by Source

For over half of city residents, including those living below median income levels, the first stage of solid waste collection is organized at the neighborhood level. This waste is moved by foot or by handcart to an open depot space or community container, where it awaits collection by the city. Problems arise when the quality of collection deteriorates and the willingness to pay for collection consequently weakens. Other households have their garbage picked up by private collecting services or by the city sanitation department (Dinas Kebersihan). For the time being, the local government already built 180 temporary waste collection centers (TPS=Tempat Pembuangan Sementara) and 2 fix waste collection centers (TPA=Tempat Pembuangan Akhir). Both type of waste centers occupy the area of around 40 ha.

Since there are still significant uncollected waste within the city, the local government, during the Sixth Five-Years Development Plan (Repelita VI: 1993-1998), plans to build another one TPA and 25 TPS and to improve the quantity and quality of waste collection such as the number of container or car, etc.

4. Air Pollution

Generally, the local government could still control the air pollution in this city. Data show that the components of air pollution which were already above the standard level were dust and SO2. The level of air pollution components in the city during the year of 1993 is summarized in Table-11.

Table-11: Air Quality in City of Surabaya 1993

5. Clean Water

As a consequence of population growth, the demand for water also increased over the time. So far, the clean water production in this city has increased from 105,316,003 m3 in 1988 to 138,199,324 m3 in 1992, while the capacity production also increased from 3,339 liter/second to 4,382 liter/second during the same time. Clean water is produced in five installations which are Ngangel I, Ngangel II, Ngangel III, Karangpilang I, and Umbulan/Pandaan.

Clean water in Surabaya is mostly consumed by household (68 percent). Since clean water provided by government is not adequate, most of the demand for water in the city either for domestic or industry purpose are provided by themselves mainly from shallow wells. The ground water is being degraded by saline intrusion due to over extraction and declining recharge, while the secondary aquifers are widely affected by organic pollution linked to infiltration from sewage.

Meanwhile, most of the rivers in Surabaya are heavily polluted. The sources of the pollution mainly come from industrial and other waste water, solid waste, and domestic sewage. High pollution levels cause treatment costs to increase. All surface waters crossing Surabaya are heavily polluted by gray water from households, commercial buildings, together with discharges from industries, pesticide and fertilizer run-off from agricultural land, solid waste, and fecal matter from overflowing or leaking septic tanks.

In order to improve the quality of clean water, the local government plans to build a new water treatment and expand facilities along with repairing old facilities. Water resources in the region are ample, but the storage and distribution of water to Surabaya and surrounding fast-growing urban areas are reaching a crisis point. Demand management, reduction of losses, and new storage and/or long distance transmission of raw water for urban uses are all urgent requirements to meet the growing needs. Also, upstream headwaters are subject to siltation and pollution because of increasing agricultural and urban pressures on forest and plantation zones. Affected by agricultural run-off, the raw water supply is subject to contamination prior to entering the City.

Along with improving the number and quality of clean water distribution, making a policy and program to clean the river is becoming the high priority by the local government. This program is not only for improving the quality of water but also improving the quality of environment in general.

6. Flooding

Flooding within the city is still a major problem for the local city government. Many parts of Surabaya, especially along the rivers and the shore, are suffering from flooding. This problem is related to the inadequate number and quality of canals in line with land subsidence in several parts of the city, and is linked to over exploitation of ground water resources. Economically, the effect of flooding is substantial; many areas drain slowly, causing prolonged traffic jams, economic losses and damage to infrastructure. Since flooding reduces the value of land, the urban poor tend to live where flooding is most frequent conversely, and the damaging effects of flooding are increased in areas where the urban poor live, because their population density means more waste to clog drains, and fewer incentives for community participation in efforts to maintain drainage facilities.

Spatial Policies and Management

Under recently introduced policy initiatives, governmental plans now take into account the spatial dimensions or the environmental limits of future urban growth. In 1992, a new law on spatial planning was passed, which establishes the legal foundation for improving on current practices. This law provides for the identification of environmentally sensitive areas in which development activities would be restricted, as well as improved planning for the location and support of centers of "Significant Activity" (e.g., industrial and commercial developments, government complexes, and other sources of employment). In the case of the latter, the intention is to ensure the provision of adequate public services and to minimize adverse effects on surrounding communities and ecosystems.

On the basis of Master Plan Surabaya 2000 (MPS 2000), the Structure Plan addresses interaction between planning, environmental resources, socio-economic resources, capital investment, and other financial resources for the entire Surabaya area. The city is preparing a sewerage and drainage master plan, providing for intermediate techniques for sewerage treatment because comprehensive, conventional sewerage system is so capital intensive and expensive to operate. Furthermore, Integrated Urban Infrastructure Development Program (IUIDP/P3KT=Peningkatan Pembangunan Prasarana Kota Terpadu) is addressing the local government responsibility for coordinating the preparation, financing and implementation of their own infrastructure programs, particularly in larger urban areas. IUIDP' s goals for Surabaya area include strengthening local government capacity as well as initiating revenue/cost recovery initiatives. The process has helped make significant progress in handing environmental impacts.

Regional Development Planning

In maintaining the level of economic development and quality of environment as a massive urban growth in this city, the local government at the provincial level promotes the regional development policy. Under this strategy, the urban development of Surabaya is becoming a part of regional development of Gerbangkertosusila (Gersik-Bangkalan-Mojokerto-Surabaya-Sidoarjo-Lamongan) that was developed in 1988 by the Governor of East Java.

Gerbangkertosusila policy incorporates the economic development with environmental planning and management into an overall strategic planning process, and addressed topics such as water resource cycles, upstream water supply, urban water cycles, flooding risk, air pollution, overcrowded housing stock, and urban kampung upgrading. As the basis for the Master Plan Surabaya 2000 (MPS 2000), Gerbangkertasusila has had partial success in linking land use planning with economic and environmental planning.

Gerbangkertasusila Urban Development involves activities in the key sectoral components of the Gerbangkertasusila area, such as population growth and distribution management, transport planning, water resources and distribution, sanitation and solid waste management, the KIP (Kampung Improvement Programs), etc. Under this project, a review has been undertaken to define an updated spatial strategy for Gerbangkertasusila to restrict development in environmentally sensitive areas, facilitate infrastructure planning throughout the region, formulate development control procedures and assess the existing legal framework related to spatial planning.

Under the MPS 2000 and Gerbangkertasusila master plan, the city of Surabaya will be expanding industrial center to Gersik, center of trade to Sidoarjo and residential area to Mojokerto and Sidoarjo, and promoting Bangkalan and Lamongan as hinterlands of Surabaya.

Concluding Remarks

Migration to the city should be recognized as a natural process of human efforts to develop their welfare. Since economic development in Surabaya has grown sharply, the percentage of people coming to the city tends to be higher than the percentage of people moving out of the city. However, in this context, government function is to provide the policy in urban management so the economic growth as well as quality of environment could be maintained. The urgent urban policy in the recent time is how to stimulate the development of medium city in order to balance the distribution of city across the nation.

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Jakarta, January, 1996

Prijono Tjiptoherijanto, Ph.D
Assistant to the State Minister
for Population, R.I. in Charge of
Population Mobility